Advanced practice in deriving accurate doctrinal meaning from Arabic clause structures Read the bilingual lesson for Language of Creed: Negation, Restriction and Implication and test your understanding with a focused quiz.
Lesson
1. Affirmation and negation under emphasis
إِنَّ اللَّهَ تَعَالَى وَاحِدٌ لَا شَرِيكَ لَهُ.
Indeed, Allah Most High is One; He has no partner.
Clause structure: Inna adds emphasis. Wāḥid is an affirmative predicate; lā sharīka lahu separately denies any partner. Affirmation and negation work together.
Meaning and inference: Tawḥīd is not merely a positive assertion. Divine oneness and the denial of partners jointly convey the complete point.
Limit of inference: Affirming oneness does not liken divine attributes to creation; denying partners is not confined to rejecting rival earthly rulers.
2. Universal negation and likeness
وَلَا شَيْءَ مِثْلُهُ.
Nothing is like Him.
Clause structure: Lā shayʾa negates any thing without narrowing the subject to a single example. Mithluhu specifies that the negated relation is likeness.
Meaning and inference: No type or individual among created beings can be treated as a true equal of the divine essence.
Limit of inference: This general denial must not be turned into a denial of all divine attributes: resemblance is rejected, not the reality of attributes.
3. Two temporal directions of bilā
قَدِيمٌ بِلَا ابْتِدَاءٍ، دَائِمٌ بِلَا انْتِهَاءٍ.
He is without any beginning and remains forever without any end.
Clause structure: Bilā makes the following noun a negated qualification. Ibtidāʾ concerns a beginning; intihāʾ concerns an ending, so the clauses answer different temporal questions.
Meaning and inference: Beginninglessness denies an origin; endlessness denies a termination. Both are affirmed of Allah.
Limit of inference: A creature’s continuing existence must not be mistaken for beginninglessness; survival and having no origin are distinct.
4. Negation followed by exception
وَلَا يَكُونُ إِلَّا مَا يُرِيدُ.
Nothing takes place except what Allah wills.
Clause structure: Lā yakūnu illā combines negation and exception to yield restriction about what occurs. Mā yurīdu states the relation to the divine will.
Meaning and inference: Nothing that occurs falls outside divine will; an event’s occurrence does not suggest that God’s will has been overcome.
Limit of inference: This connection between occurrence and will does not prove that every occurrence is morally approved or loved; will and approval must be distinguished.
5. Two coordinated negations
لَا تَبْلُغُهُ الْأَوْهَامُ وَلَا تُدْرِكُهُ الْأَفْهَامُ.
Imaginations do not reach His reality, nor do understandings encompass Him.
Clause structure: Lā ... wa lā coordinates two negated verbs. Tablughuhu and tudrikuhu are distinct descriptions; al-awhām and al-afhām are their respective subjects.
Meaning and inference: Neither imaginative reach nor complete intellectual comprehension can encompass the divine reality.
Limit of inference: Denying comprehensive grasp does not mean that a person can know nothing true about Allah.
6. Two positive attributes, two negative qualifications
خَالِقٌ بِلَا حَاجَةٍ، رَازِقٌ بِلَا مُؤْنَةٍ.
He creates without need and provides sustenance without toil.
Clause structure: Khāliq and rāziq are affirmative predicates. Bilā ḥājah and bilā muʾnah exclude creaturely need or burden from these attributes.
Meaning and inference: Allah creates and provides without dependency, exhaustion, or the burden characteristic of creatures.
Limit of inference: Treating bilā as negating the creative or providing attribute reverses the relation between the positive assertion and its qualification.
7. Continuity signaled by mā zāla
مَا زَالَ بِصِفَاتِهِ قَدِيمًا قَبْلَ خَلْقِهِ
Before creating anything, Allah was eternally possessed of His attributes.
Clause structure: Mā zāla indicates continued existence. With biṣifātihi and qadīman it conveys the enduring, beginningless reality of the divine attributes.
Meaning and inference: Allah possessed His attributes before creating; the appearance of creatures did not originate His attributes.
Limit of inference: Arguing that no creature means no prior divine attribute makes an eternal attribute dependent on created existence.
8. Prior knowledge and qabla an
وَلَمْ يَخْفَ عَلَيْهِ شَيْءٌ مِنْ أَفْعَالِهِمْ قَبْلَ أَنْ خَلَقَهُمْ
Before creating them, none of their actions was hidden from Allah.
Clause structure: Qabla an khalaqahum locates the statement before the act of creating. Its function is to make the before-and-after relation explicit.
Meaning and inference: The servants’ acts were known to Allah before their creation; He did not have to acquire this knowledge afterward.
Limit of inference: Foreknowledge and coercion are distinct claims: the word qabla by itself does not establish compulsion.
9. Command and prohibition as paired directions
وَأَمَرَهُمْ بِطَاعَتِهِ وَنَهَاهُمْ عَنْ مَعْصِيَتِهِ
He commanded them to obey Him and forbade them from disobeying Him.
Clause structure: Amarahum and nahāhum are coordinated verbs with opposed functions: command toward obedience and prohibition away from disobedience. Bi and ʿan mark their respective objects.
Meaning and inference: Religious responsibility has both dimensions: performing commanded obedience and refraining from forbidden disobedience.
Limit of inference: Command and prohibition establish moral responsibility; they do not themselves make the servant a helplessly compelled agent.
10. Human will under the qualifying exception
لَا مَشِيئَةَ لِلْعِبَادِ إِلَّا مَا شَاءَ لَهُمْ
Servants have no will except what Allah has willed for them.
Clause structure: Lā mashīʾata lil-ʿibād illā uses negation and exception. The restriction denies independent, absolute human will while relating human willing to Allah’s will.
Meaning and inference: Human choice is not independent of divine will, yet this does not eliminate the servant’s willing and acquisition of actions.
Limit of inference: Both fatalistic compulsion and absolute human independence miss the combined claims of responsibility and divine sovereignty.
11. Several predicates for one referent
وَإِنَّ مُحَمَّدًا صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ عَبْدُهُ الْمُصْطَفَى وَنَبِيُّهُ الْمُجْتَبَى وَرَسُولُهُ الْمُرْتَضَى
Muhammad ﷺ is Allah’s chosen servant, selected Prophet, and approved Messenger.
Clause structure: ʿAbduhu, nabiyyuhu, and rasūluhu are coordinated descriptions of the same referent: Muḥammad ﷺ. Several predicates do not imply several persons.
Meaning and inference: His servanthood, prophethood, and messengership are consistent attributes of one person, not competing identities.
Limit of inference: Affirming servanthood does not diminish prophetic rank; affirming messengership does not confer divine attributes.
12. The scope of coordinated honorific predicates
وَإِنَّهُ خَاتَمُ الْأَنْبِيَاءِ وَإِمَامُ الْأَتْقِيَاءِ وَسَيِّدُ الْمُرْسَلِينَ وَحَبِيبُ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ
The Prophet ﷺ is the Seal of the Prophets, leader of the God-fearing, master of the Messengers, and beloved of the Lord of the worlds.
Clause structure: Khatam al-anbiyāʾ and sayyid al-mursalīn appear among coordinated predicates. Each conveys a distinct honor; the phrases are not interchangeable definitions.
Meaning and inference: Finality ends the line of prophethood; being foremost among messengers expresses rank and distinction.
Limit of inference: High rank does not reopen prophethood; finality does not negate the other distinctive merits of the Messenger.
13. An emphatic clause about the Qur’an
وَإِنَّ الْقُرْآنَ كَلَامُ اللَّهِ
The Qur’an is the speech of Allah.
Clause structure: In wa inna al-Qurʾāna kalām Allāh, inna gives emphasis while the construct phrase kalām Allāh attributes speech to Allah. This is the predicate.
Meaning and inference: The speech is attributed to Allah; the Qur’an is not therefore simply a composition authored by a human being.
Limit of inference: The construct phrase alone does not settle every lexical, recitational, or phonetic question; other issues need their own evidence.
14. Affirmation of vision with two qualifications
وَالرُّؤْيَةُ حَقٌّ لِأَهْلِ الْجَنَّةِ بِغَيْرِ إِحَاطَةٍ وَلَا كَيْفِيَّةٍ
The people of Paradise will truly see Allah, without encompassing Him or determining a modality.
Clause structure: Al-ruʾyatu ḥaqq affirms vision. Bi-ghayri iḥāṭah wa lā kayfiyyah then adds two negative qualifications; neither cancels the original assertion.
Meaning and inference: The affirmed vision of the people of Paradise is understood alongside the denial of encompassing and specifying its modality.
Limit of inference: Not knowing a modality is not the same as denying vision, and affirming vision does not entail encompassing the divine essence.
15. Another restrictive construction
وَلَا تَثْبُتُ قَدَمُ الْإِسْلَامِ إِلَّا عَلَى ظَهْرِ التَّسْلِيمِ وَالِاسْتِسْلَامِ
One’s footing in Islam is established through acceptance and surrender.
Clause structure: Lā tathbutu ... illā ʿalā restricts the condition for firmness. ʿAlā ẓahr al-taslīm wa-l-istislām is figurative, not a claim about a physical back.
Meaning and inference: Firm adherence depends on submission to what is established from Allah and His Messenger.
Limit of inference: Submission does not require abandoning understanding; it requires not rejecting established guidance without sound grounds.
16. A compact nominal assertion
وَالْمِعْرَاجُ حَقٌّ
The Ascension is true.
Clause structure: Wa-l-miʿrāju ḥaqq is a compact nominal clause: al-miʿrāj is its subject and ḥaqq its predicate. Brevity does not weaken the affirmation.
Meaning and inference: Affirming the Ascension as true differs from reducing it to a baseless story or mere metaphor.
Limit of inference: These two words do not themselves supply every detail or chronology of the event; other texts are needed for such questions.
17. Relative clause identifying the intercession
وَالشَّفَاعَةُ الَّتِي ادَّخَرَهَا لَهُمْ حَقٌّ كَمَا رُوِيَ فِي الْأَخْبَارِ
The intercession reserved for the Prophet ﷺ is true, as transmitted in the reports.
Clause structure: In al-shafāʿatu allatī iddakharahā lahum, allatī is a relative pronoun followed by its clause; the pronoun hā refers back to intercession.
Meaning and inference: The relative clause identifies the intercession reserved for the Prophet ﷺ; that intercession is affirmed as true.
Limit of inference: Without tracking the pronoun, a reader can confuse what is reserved with whom it is reserved for.
18. The construct phrase and the limits of knowledge
وَأَصْلُ الْقَدَرِ سِرُّ اللَّهِ تَعَالَى فِي خَلْقِهِ
The foundation of predestination is Allah Most High’s secret concerning His creation.
Clause structure: Sirr Allāh is a construct phrase describing decree as a divine secret. Fī khalqihi locates the matter in relation to His creation.
Meaning and inference: The deepest aspects of divine decree cannot responsibly be defined with unwarranted certainty by human speculation.
Limit of inference: Unknowable depths of decree do not remove belief in decree, its established principles, or human moral responsibility.
19. A condition delimiting the ruling
وَأَهْلُ الْكَبَائِرِ مِنْ أُمَّةِ مُحَمَّدٍ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ فِي النَّارِ لَا يُخَلَّدُونَ إِذَا مَاتُوا وَهُمْ مُوَحِّدُونَ
Major sinners from Muhammad’s ﷺ community do not remain eternally in the Fire if they die as affirmers of Allah’s oneness, even if they enter it.
Clause structure: Lā yukhalladūn negates permanent residence in Hell; idhā mātū wa-hum muwaḥḥidūn adds the condition of dying upon tawḥīd. Omitting it changes the scope.
Meaning and inference: The statement concerns major sinners of the Prophet’s community who die upon tawḥīd; grave sin alone does not entail eternal punishment.
Limit of inference: This does not authorize judgment of every individual’s final destiny or make serious sin harmless.
20. Emphasis through fa-inna and qad
وَنُؤْمِنُ بِالْكِرَامِ الْكَاتِبِينَ فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ قَدْ جَعَلَهُمْ عَلَيْنَا حَافِظِينَ
We believe in the noble recording angels, for Allah has appointed them as guardians over us.
Clause structure: Fa-inna introduces an explanatory, emphatic clause; qad with the past verb jaʿalahum underlines the accomplished appointment.
Meaning and inference: Belief in the noble recording angels rests on Allah having appointed them as guardians over people.
Limit of inference: Their appointment does not imply independent divine knowledge or power; they remain created agents assigned a duty.
21. Cumulative negation of cessation
وَالْجَنَّةُ وَالنَّارُ مَخْلُوقَتَانِ لَا تَفْنَيَانِ أَبَدًا وَلَا تَبِيدَانِ
Paradise and Hell have both been created. They will never perish or cease to exist.
Clause structure: The dual endings in lā tafnayāni and lā tabīdāni refer to Paradise and Hell together. Abadan underscores lasting continuance; the second negation reinforces this.
Meaning and inference: Paradise and Hell are created, yet being created does not itself imply that they must cease to exist.
Limit of inference: Having an origin and having an end are separate questions; the passage does not support an automatic inference of inevitable annihilation.
22. An evidentiary qualification in reports
وَنُؤْمِنُ بِمَا جَاءَ مِنْ كَرَامَاتِهِمْ وَصَحَّ عَنِ الثِّقَاتِ مِنْ رِوَايَاتِهِمْ
We believe in reports of the saints' extraordinary graces that are soundly transmitted by reliable narrators.
Clause structure: Mā jāʾa min karāmātihim wa-ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt adds an evidentiary qualification: reports are assessed for sound transmission from reliable narrators.
Meaning and inference: Affirming karāmāt and soundly transmitted reports is not a requirement to accept every circulating anecdote unquestioningly.
Limit of inference: A karāmah differs from a prophetic miracle, and an astonishing story is not authenticated merely by being astonishing.
23. Negation across coordinated objects
وَلَا نُصَدِّقُ كَاهِنًا وَلَا عَرَّافًا وَلَا مَنْ يَدَّعِي شَيْئًا يُخَالِفُ الْكِتَابَ وَالسُّنَّةَ وَإِجْمَاعَ الْأُمَّةِ.
We do not affirm a kāhin (soothsayer), an ʿarrāf (diviner), or anyone who makes a claim contrary to the Book, the Sunnah and the consensus of the Muslim community.
Clause structure: Lā nuṣaddiqu kāhinan wa-lā ʿarrāfan wa-lā man... coordinates several objects under negation; the relative clause adds a general class of claimants.
Meaning and inference: The passage rejects believing soothsayers, diviners, and claimants whose assertions contradict the Book, Sunnah, and consensus; fascination is no proof.
Limit of inference: Ordinary reporting, evidence-based estimates, and legitimate inquiry must not all be mislabeled as soothsaying without grounds.
24. Parallel constructions using bayna
وَهُوَ بَيْنَ الْغُلُوِّ وَالتَّقْصِيرِ وَبَيْنَ التَّشْبِيهِ وَالتَّعْطِيلِ وَبَيْنَ الْجَبْرِ وَالْقَدَرِ وَبَيْنَ الْأَمْنِ وَالْإِيَاسِ.
The religion of Islam follows a middle path between excess and deficiency, likening God to creation and denying His attributes, compulsion and the doctrine of autonomous human creation, and feeling secure from punishment and despairing of mercy.
Clause structure: Bayna ... wa recurs four times as a parallel construction. Each pair sets out two extremes and the sound position between them.
Meaning and inference: The pairs concern distinct domains: exaggeration and neglect, assimilation and denial, compulsion and absolute self-determination, false security and despair.
Limit of inference: Moderation does not mean averaging competing truth claims arithmetically; the criterion remains sound evidence and doctrine.
25. A general expression and the responsive fa
وَمَا آتَاكُمُ الرَّسُولُ فَخُذُوهُ وَمَا نَهَاكُمْ عَنْهُ فَانْتَهُوا
Whatever the Messenger gives you, take it; and whatever he forbids you, refrain from it. (Al-Ḥashr 59:7)
Clause structure: Mā in mā ātākum al-rasūlu fa-khudhūhu carries general import. Fa links the instruction with its response; the second clause contrasts what is prohibited with refraining.
Meaning and inference: Taking established Prophetic guidance and refraining from what he forbade are complementary aspects of obedience.
Limit of inference: Following the Messenger does not authorize attributing unverified statements to him; a claimed instruction must first be established.
Practice questions
Question 1
What is the combined force of wāḥid and lā sharīka lahu?
- Only a lexical definition of the number one
- A denial that creatures exist
- Only a description of ritual forms
- Affirmation of oneness and denial of every partner
Question 2
What does the universality of lā shayʾa deny?
- Allah’s knowledge
- The existence of all creatures
- That any creature is a genuine equal of Allah
- A believer’s ability to learn
Question 3
What distinguishes bilā ibtidāʾ from bilā intihāʾ?
- Both deny only death
- The first denies a beginning; the second denies an end
- One denies knowledge and the other power
- Both affirm created beings are beginningless
Question 4
What is restricted by lā yakūnu illā in this passage?
- What actually occurs is under divine will
- Every event is religiously approved
- Every human choice is denied
- Only future unseen events are described
Question 5
What follows from the pairing of the two negative clauses?
- No true knowledge is possible
- No divine attribute can be affirmed
- Arabic words cannot have a determinate meaning
- Neither imagination nor understanding comprehensively encompasses Allah
Question 6
What does khāliq bilā ḥājah deny?
- The act of creating itself
- The existence of creatures
- Dependence or need in creating
- Divine power
Question 7
What temporal sense does mā zāla convey here?
- Attributes developing later
- The continuance and beginninglessness of divine attributes
- Knowledge arising only after creation
- Attributes transferring from creatures
Question 8
What relation does qabla an khalaqahum clarify?
- Divine knowledge preceding created beings
- Allah later acquiring knowledge
- The absence of human acts
- The beginninglessness of creatures
Question 9
What is the contrast between biṭāʿatihi and ʿan maʿṣiyatihi?
- Only the timing of worship
- Both permit disobedience
- Denial of divine foreknowledge
- Commanding obedience and forbidding disobedience
Question 10
What qualification is supplied by illā mā shāʾa lahum?
- Human willing is absolutely independent
- No deed can be attributed to a servant
- Human willing is subordinate to divine will
- Human decisions determine divine knowledge
Question 11
To whom do the three coordinated descriptions refer?
- Three distinct prophets
- The person of Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ
- All Companions collectively
- Three classes of angels
Question 12
How do khātam al-anbiyāʾ and sayyid al-mursalīn differ?
- The first conveys finality; the second a rank of distinction
- Both state merely a number
- The first dates the Last Day and the second names a language of revelation
- Both establish the possibility of a new prophet
Question 13
What is the central grammatical and semantic role of kalām Allāh?
- Naming a human author of the Qur’an
- Fixing the number of prayer cycles
- Forming an unrelated interrogative sentence
- A predicate attributing the Qur’an as speech to Allah
Question 14
What is denied by bi-ghayri iḥāṭah?
- The existence of the people of Paradise
- Vision itself
- Comprehensive encompassing in vision
- Divine power
Question 15
What requirement does the illā ʿalā restriction emphasize?
- Declaring every question unbelief
- Steadfast faith grounded in submission
- Reading the figurative phrase physically
- Removing all human volition
Question 16
What grammatical role does ḥaqq play in wa-l-miʿrāju ḥaqq?
- Predicate of the subject
- A past-tense verb
- A negating particle
- The consequence of a conditional clause
Question 17
To what does the hā in iddakharahā refer?
- To al-akhbār (reports)
- To al-jannah (Paradise)
- To al-qadar (decree)
- To al-shafāʿah (intercession)
Question 18
What is conveyed by sirr Allāh in this context?
- Belief in decree is unnecessary
- Humans are not responsible for their acts
- Some depths of decree exceed complete human comprehension
- Every theory of decree is equally valid
Question 19
What role does idhā mātū wa-hum muwaḥḥidūn play?
- Making every sin lawful
- Qualifying the denial of eternal punishment by dying upon tawḥīd
- Eliminating the duty of repentance
- Regulating prayer after death
Question 20
What does qad most directly emphasize in qad jaʿalahum?
- That their appointment has indeed taken place
- That appointment is prohibited
- That a future act is impossible
- An interrogative construction
Question 21
To what does the dual form tafnayāni refer?
- Two heavens
- Two Companions
- Two eras
- To both Paradise and Hell
Question 22
What does wa-ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt require?
- Immediate acceptance of every famous story
- Treating miracle and karāmah as synonyms
- Sound transmission and reliable reporting of karāmāt
- Rejecting all historical reports alike
Question 23
What does the addition wa-lā man yaddaʿī shayʾan achieve?
- It identifies only two named persons
- It extends the rejection to claimants opposing Book, Sunnah, and consensus
- It negates all legitimate scholarship
- It requires believing the soothsayer
Question 24
What does the repeated bayna convey as a whole?
- Avoiding two extremes across several doctrinal issues
- One literal meaning for all creed questions
- Accepting exactly half of each contradictory assertion
- Removing religious obligations
Question 25
What combined duty do the two clauses establish?
- Merely recall one historical event
- Accept every attributed report without verification
- Restrict obedience to internal sentiment
- Accept established instruction and refrain from what is forbidden
Question 26
How do the constructions lā yakūnu illā mā yurīdu and lā mashīʾata lil-ʿibād illā mā shāʾa lahum compare?
- Both use negation and exception: the first concerns events, the second human willing
- Both are mere prohibitions with no reference to will
- The first concerns prophethood; the second karāmah
- Both prove that sin is religiously approved
Question 27
Which reading holds together lā shayʾa mithluhu and al-ruʾyatu ḥaqq ... bi-ghayri iḥāṭah?
- Vision necessarily entails a created form and full comprehension
- Likeness being denied requires denying vision
- Vision is affirmed together with denial of likeness and encompassing
- Denying likeness has no bearing on attributes
Question 28
What shared principle emerges from mā zāla biṣifātihi qadīman and khāliqun bilā ḥājah?
- Eternal attributes began with the creation of creatures
- Divine attributes do not depend on creatures or creaturely need
- Allah does not create because He has no need
- Providing applies only to the next life
Question 29
How do the short clauses wa-l-miʿrāju ḥaqq and wa-inna al-Qurʾāna kalām Allāh compare?
- Both are questions
- Both are imperatives
- The first only expresses a condition; the second only an exception
- Both are affirmative statements, with inna adding emphasis in the second
Question 30
Why is it unsound to treat qabla an khalaqahum alone as proof of human compulsion?
- Qabla indicates temporal priority; foreknowledge is not itself a denial of choice
- The phrase wholly denies divine knowledge
- The phrase has no temporal significance
- It explicitly removes every form of human choice
Question 31
What distinction about evaluating claims follows from wa-ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt and wa-lā nuṣaddiqu kāhinan?
- Every extraordinary claim is accepted without evidence
- Assessing sound reports differs from credulously accepting divination
- Every trustworthy narrator is necessarily a diviner
- No event can be known through reports
Question 32
What inferential principle is shared by idhā mātū wa-hum muwaḥḥidūn and bi-ghayri iḥāṭah?
- Both cancel the main assertion entirely
- Both make the main claim irrelevant
- Both qualify a claim and prevent an unrestricted inference
- Neither passage contains a qualification
Question 33
What practical link joins amarahum biṭāʿatihi wa-nahāhum ʿan maʿṣiyatihi with wa-mā ātākum al-rasūlu fa-khudhūhu?
- Both deny human moral responsibility
- Both describe only the wording of worship
- Both render lawful and unlawful meaningless
- Both emphasize taking commands and avoiding prohibitions
Question 34
What balanced understanding comes from reading khātam al-anbiyāʾ with ʿabduhu ... wa-rasūluhu?
- Servanthood and prophethood are mutually exclusive
- He is Allah’s chosen servant, Messenger, and the final Prophet
- Finality invalidates the fact of earlier messengers
- Messengership proves divinity
Question 35
How does bayna al-ghuluw wa-l-taqṣīr relate to al-ruʾyatu ḥaqq bi-ghayri iḥāṭah?
- Moderation affirms what is established without adding unwarranted claims
- Moderation requires denying every text
- Moderation means asserting every imagined modality
- No evidence is needed to balance claims
Question 36
Inna adds emphasis but does not by itself determine the subject matter of the statement.
Question 37
Bilā ḥājah negates creating, and bilā intihāʾ negates Allah’s existence.
Question 38
In al-ruʾyatu ḥaqq bi-ghayri iḥāṭah, bi-ghayri qualifies the affirmed vision by negating encompassing.
Question 39
Removing a qualification such as idhā mātū wa-hum muwaḥḥidūn leaves the ruling’s scope unchanged.
Question 40
Wa-ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt shows that verifying the transmission of karāmah reports is relevant.
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