Iqtibas, Tadmeen, Aqd, Hall, Talmih and the Art of Literary Openings and Endings

1. From poetic borrowing to deliberate literary reuse

The end of the discussion of poetic borrowing recognizes independent convergence and skillful transformation. Similarity alone does not decide authorship or dependence: chronology, distinctive wording and the possibility of independent creation must be distinguished.

Five further practices are then described: iqtibās (scriptural quotation), taḍmīn (incorporating poetry), ʿaqd (putting prose into verse), ḥall (rendering verse into prose) and talmīḥ (allusion). Each establishes a different relationship with earlier material.

2. What constitutes iqtibās

«أما الاقتباس فهو أن يضمن الكلام شيئا من القرآن أو الحديث لا على أنه منه»
Iqtibās means placing something from the Qur’an or Hadith within a composition, not by formally introducing it as a quotation from that source.

Iqtibās is the incorporation of wording from the Qur’an or Hadith into one’s own prose or verse, in a way that makes the borrowed wording function within the new composition rather than merely introducing it as a formally cited report.

It occurs in prose and poetry. Its decisive feature is the source of the words: Qur’an or Hadith. Incorporating a poet’s verse instead belongs under taḍmīn, not this specific definition.

3. Quotation as a device versus direct citation

A direct citation explicitly identifies its source, such as by saying “God says” before reciting a verse. In iqtibās as a rhetorical technique, the scriptural wording forms part of the writer’s own sentence or line.

The classification is literary, not permission to distort sacred wording or meaning. Accurate recognition of the quoted expression, its source and its new context remains essential.

4. A short Qur’anic phrase in another setting

«فَصَبْرٌ جَمِيلٌ»
Then beautiful patience is called for.

“So patience is beautiful” is a Qur’anic expression associated with exemplary patience. A poet who uses this brief phrase when describing separation and endurance may evoke its established scriptural resonance.

The effect has two layers: fitness within the new sentence, and an echo of the established source. The surrounding poetic words do not become Qur’anic text; the scriptural wording and the poet’s addition must remain distinct.

5. Another example: the language of reliance

«حَسْبُنَا اللَّهُ وَنِعْمَ الْوَكِيلُ»
Allah is sufficient for us, and He is the best disposer of affairs.

“Allah is sufficient for us, and He is the best disposer of affairs” conveys reliance and trust. A poem that inserts this phrase meaningfully gains force from its recognized religious association, not merely from reproducing an attractive expression.

Successful quotation depends on the fit between source meaning and new context. A distortion of meaning or irrelevant placement weakens rather than demonstrates rhetorical skill.

6. Minor alteration in quoted expressions

The passage allows that a slight alteration may sometimes occur for metre or another compositional requirement while the relationship to the original remains recognizable.

This literary observation must not be confused with rules for accurate Qur’anic recitation or with religious propriety. An altered phrase must never be represented as the exact wording of the verse; the alteration and its source must be distinguished.

7. Taḍmīn and its identifying condition

«وأما التضمين فهو أن يضمن الشعر شيئا من شعر الغير مع التنبيه عليه إن لم يكن مشهورا عند البلغاء»
Taḍmīn is to incorporate another poet’s words into one’s verse, indicating the source if the borrowed passage is not famous among skilled readers.

Taḍmīn inserts a line, half-line, or recognizable part of another poet’s verse into a new poem. Its source is earlier poetry, unlike iqtibās, whose sources are the Qur’an and Hadith.

When the inserted material is not well known, an indication should show the reader that it has been taken from another poet. Otherwise the new poet may appear to be claiming the borrowed words as original.

8. Familiar versus unfamiliar quoted verse

A famous line may be recognized at once by knowledgeable readers, and its familiarity can itself indicate an earlier source.

An obscure borrowed line ordinarily needs an explicit or contextual signal. The purpose of that indication is not to diminish the new poem, but to distinguish the new composition from the part supplied by another poet.

9. Incorporating a single half-line

Taḍmīn may involve a complete couplet, a half-line or a recognizable extract. The borrowed segment must be integrated into the new poetic unit rather than attached as an unrelated ornament.

For example, a pre-existing line about hardship in battle may be set beside new lines that adapt its significance. Successful taḍmīn makes the relationship meaningful; mechanically joining two fragments does not establish artistic success.

10. Coherence as the measure of successful taḍmīn

The text also attends to especially effective taḍmīn: the new poem can add a context, image or inference that intensifies the borrowed line.

Evaluate three matters separately: whether the inserted wording is identifiable, whether it fits the new theme, and whether the resulting combination produces additional meaning or effect. Metrical convenience alone is not a sufficient measure of quality.

11. A decisive comparison: iqtibās and taḍmīn

TechniqueSourceFunctionIqtibāsQur’an or HadithUsing scriptural words within new compositionTaḍmīnAnother poet’s verseEmbedding an earlier poetic passage

Both introduce earlier wording, but their technical labels depend on what kind of text is borrowed. An indication of authorship becomes especially significant for unfamiliar poetic material.

12. ʿAqd: versifying earlier prose

«وأما العقد فهو أن ينظم نثرا لا على طريق الاقتباس»
ʿAqd is the versification of prose, rather than the direct incorporation used in iqtibās.

ʿAqd takes the content of an earlier prose expression and casts it into measured verse. It is not merely inserting prose wording unchanged: the original meaning receives poetic metre, arrangement and rhythm.

A sound example preserves the central sense while producing effective verse. If the point of the earlier saying disappears, the relation to the prose source becomes weak.

13. The source example of ʿaqd

«ما بال من أوله نطفة وجيفة آخره يفخر»
Why does one whose beginning is a drop and whose end is a corpse boast?

The prose saying warns against arrogance by pointing to the human being’s lowly beginning and mortal end. The verse gives that thought a measured, balanced literary form.

The rhetorical force lies not merely in repeating “drop” and “corpse,” but in shaping the contrast between beginning and end. The text attributes the earlier saying to ʿAlī; the attribution should not be confused with a Prophetic Hadith.

14. Ḥall: recasting poetry as prose

«وأما الحل فهو أن ينثر نظما»
Ḥall means rendering poetry in prose.

Ḥall works in the reverse direction from ʿaqd: it takes existing verse and renders its sense in prose. A good rendering need not reproduce every word in its original metrical order.

It should preserve the central relation, such as cause and consequence, while creating coherent prose. Both fidelity of sense and prose fluency matter.

15. A verse about conduct and suspicion

«إذا ساء فعل المرء ساءت ظنونه وصدق ما يعتاده من توهم»
When a person’s conduct turns bad, his suspicions become bad, and he believes the fancies to which he is accustomed.

The couplet links a person’s conduct to the quality of his judgments: harmful actions lead him to suspect others and then to trust his own suspicions.

A prose rendering can state: “When someone behaves badly, he increasingly doubts others and comes to mistake habitual suspicions for facts.” This is a reexpression of the relationship, not a word-for-word metrical translation.

16. ʿAqd and ḥall in opposite directions

PracticeStarting materialResultʿAqdProseVerse conveying the same meaningḤallVerseProse conveying the same meaning

Both change the form of expression while preserving substantive meaning. A mere synonym replacement does not by itself fulfill either transformation.

17. Talmīḥ: pointing without reproducing

«وأما التلميح فهو أن يشار إلى قصة أو شعر من غير ذكره»
Talmīḥ is an indication of a story or poem without reproducing it.

Talmīḥ alludes to a recognized story, historical event or poem without reproducing the entire passage. The reader completes the reference from prior knowledge.

A good allusion gives enough indication for the relevant narrative or earlier poem to be recognized. A reference so vague that no particular background can be identified will have little of the desired effect.

18. Allusion to Yūshaʿ and the sun

«ألمت بنا أم كان في الركب يوشع»
Has this astonishing event befallen us, or was Yūshaʿ among the travelling company?

The poetic reference to Yūshaʿ recalls a well-known narrative associated with the sun. The story is not retold; the proper name and the surprising context evoke it.

This is narrative allusion: a brief signal activates a much fuller episode in the reader’s mind. Its effect presupposes recognition of the background.

19. Allusion to an earlier well-known line

A new poem may point to another famous line through its image or recognizable situation without directly inserting the older words. This is allusion to poetry.

For example, the celebrated image of seeking shelter from burning ground only to turn to fire suggests moving from danger to something even worse. A new work can allude to that known image without quoting the original poem in full.

20. Talmīḥ compared with taḍmīn

Taḍmīn: wording from a previous poem is actually incorporated into the new verse. Talmīḥ: the new work points to a story or poem without necessarily repeating its wording.

The crucial issue is not word count but the action performed: embedding an earlier text versus invoking it by a recognizable hint.

21. Five practices compared in one framework

NameDistinctive actionIqtibāsInsert Qur’anic or Hadith wordingTaḍmīnInsert words from earlier poetryʿAqdTurn prose into verseḤallTurn verse into proseTalmīḥAllude to a story or poem

Begin by identifying the earlier source. Then ask whether wording has been inserted, the literary form transformed, or the earlier material merely evoked.

22. Three structurally important places in speech

The final discussion turns to three privileged positions within discourse: the beginning, transition between purposes, and ending. Grammatical correctness alone does not make these positions successful; suitability and rhetorical arrangement matter.

An opening secures attention; a transition sustains unity; a conclusion leaves a final impression. The principles apply beyond poetic rhyme to crafted prose as well.

23. Ḥusn al-ibtidāʾ: the effect of an opening

Ḥusn al-ibtidāʾ is excellence in beginning a composition. The first words should be well chosen, their meaning accessible and their phrasing attractive enough to invite the listener onward.

Unnecessary obscurity or awkwardness in the first sentence can weaken even strong subsequent content. Clarity and suitability therefore outweigh purely decorative complexity.

24. Barāʿat al-istihlāl: an opening that foreshadows its theme

When an attractive opening also hints appropriately at the composition’s main subject, it is called barāʿat al-istihlāl. It need not disclose the full argument; a fitting anticipation is sufficient.

Words of good news suit a congratulatory poem, whereas they could be incongruous in an elegy. The virtue arises from the fit between opening and intended subject.

25. A classical opening through recollection

«قفا نبك من ذكرى حبيب ومنزل»
Stop, and let us weep over the memory of a beloved and a dwelling.

The celebrated opening begins with memory of a beloved and a former dwelling. The imperative address and invitation to pause create an elegiac atmosphere immediately.

Its power does not rest simply on fame. “Stop” and “let us weep” involve the audience in recollection, establishing the mood that governs the poem’s opening.

26. A congratulatory opening

«بشرى فقد أنجز الإقبال ما وعدا»
Good news: prosperity has fulfilled what it promised.

The words for good news, favorable fortune and fulfilled promise immediately suggest celebration and success.

The opening is therefore more than attractive: it creates an appropriate expectation about the poem’s subject. That anticipatory fit is the specific virtue of barāʿat al-istihlāl.

27. When an opening conflicts with its purpose

An expression may be fluent in itself but poorly chosen for the occasion. If a congratulatory composition opens with striking imagery of loss and separation, the audience may receive an impression opposite to the intended theme.

An opening must be evaluated for both linguistic grace and fitness to purpose. Eloquence requires more than attractive words in isolation.

28. Ḥusn al-takhalluṣ: a graceful transition

Ḥusn al-takhalluṣ is a well-managed movement from one subject or purpose to another through a meaningful connection. The listener senses continuity rather than an abrupt jump.

A poem may move from an image of light to praise of a benefactor by linking the source of light to generosity. The connection makes the move from description to praise coherent.

29. An example: moving from sunrise to praise

«أطلع الشمس تبغي أن تؤم بنا فقلت كلا ولكن مطلع الجود»
Do you seek the sunrise to guide us? I said: no, rather the rising of generosity.

The verse begins with a question about sunrise and then redirects the image to the emergence of the praised person’s generosity.

The link rests on brightness, manifestation and benefit. The listener can follow the shift because the image makes the second purpose intelligible.

30. Testing the quality of a transition

A transition is not successful merely because two topics share one word. Its effectiveness depends on a meaningful image or inference that carries the reader’s attention forward.

Read the end of the first topic and the opening of the second separately. Identify the mediating idea. Ask whether it naturally motivates the change or only disguises an arbitrary leap.

31. Iqtīḍāb: a more abrupt shift

Iqtīḍāb denotes a transition without the elaborate semantic bridge sought in takhalluṣ. Classical Arabic compositions contain such changes of purpose.

It is not invariably a defect. Context may make the new subject timely enough. Yet where continuity is essential, an abrupt move can feel forced or disruptive.

32. Takhalluṣ versus iqtīḍāb

AspectTakhalluṣIqtīḍābMovementThrough a fitting bridgeWithout an obvious bridgeEffectSmooth, cohesiveMore abruptChief criterionElegance of linkSuitability of occasion

Both change subject. The difference lies in whether the transition itself is artistically developed or the new topic begins with little explicit mediation.

33. The formula «ammā baʿd» and shifting topics

«أَمَّا بَعْدُ»
Now, to what follows.

The formula “ammā baʿd” marks the move from preliminary praise to the substantive message. Instead of an elaborately constructed metaphorical bridge, a recognized discourse signal indicates the new section.

The source connects the discussion with faṣl al-khiṭāb. The practical rhetorical effect is clear: the listener understands that the opening formalities are over and the main address is beginning.

34. «Hādhā» as a marker of a new segment

«هَذَا وَإِنَّ لِلطَّاغِينَ لَشَرَّ مَآبٍ»
This is so; and indeed for the transgressors is an evil place of return.

In Qur’anic discourse, “hādhā” can introduce a distinct segment following an earlier passage. The text draws attention to this role in marking structure and guiding the listener.

Its function must be read in context rather than inferred from the demonstrative alone. The surrounding passage determines what has just concluded and what new topic is beginning.

35. Ḥusn al-intihāʾ: excellence at the ending

Ḥusn al-intihāʾ is excellence in bringing a composition to its close. Its final words should be apt, graceful and proportionate to the purpose, because they often remain most vividly with the audience.

Praise poetry may conclude with a suitable prayer or a final statement that completes the commendation. The governing standard is a coherent and effective conclusion.

36. Closing praise with an inclusive prayer

«بقيت بقاء الدهر يا كهف أهله وهذا دعاء للبرية شامل»
May you endure as long as time, O refuge of its people; this prayer embraces all humankind.

The couplet prays for the praised person’s continued well-being and enlarges the wish into a blessing for others. It closes the poem on an inclusive note of goodwill.

The line does not introduce a disconnected last-minute topic. It gathers the poem’s purpose into a memorable concluding blessing.

37. Completeness and knowing when to stop

A fine ending stops when the rhetorical purpose has reached a suitable completion. Once a concise final blessing has achieved closure, irrelevant material can diffuse the effect.

Ending too early can leave a necessary inference unstated. The aim is therefore a balance between economy and completion of the intended sense.

38. Beginning, transition and ending as one design

PositionVirtueTestOpeningḤusn al-ibtidāʾClear and fitting start?TransitionḤusn al-takhalluṣNatural connection?EndingḤusn al-intihāʾEffective completion?

All three respond to the broad principle of speech fitting its occasion. An impressive opening cannot compensate for a purposeless ending, nor can a strong idea always survive a jarring transition.

39. Concluding synthesis of the three sciences

ʿIlm al-maʿānī concerns the arrangement of discourse in relation to circumstance; ʿilm al-bayān explains alternative modes of expressing meaning and their signification; ʿilm al-badīʿ studies refinements that enhance expression.

Distinguishing iqtibās, taḍmīn, ʿaqd, ḥall and talmīḥ completes this integrated approach. Accuracy of sense, clarity of expression, contextual suitability and compositional unity reinforce one another.

The final discussions illustrate a governing point: a literary device is strongest when it serves meaning, not when it merely adds ornament or difficulty.