Printed pp. 106–111: Majaz and its conditions; metaphor, explicit and implicit forms, primary and derivative uses, and reinforced, stripped, and unqualified metaphor Read the bilingual lesson for Majaz and Istiara: Literal Meaning, Relationship, Contextual Evidence, and Types of Metaphor and test your understanding with a focused quiz.
Lesson
1. Literal and transferred meaning
A word is used literally (haqiqa) when it bears its established meaning. It is figurative (majaz) when it is employed for a different meaning through a recognizable relation and the context prevents taking the original meaning.
For example, the original sense of «دُرَر» is pearls. In «فُلَانٌ يَتَكَلَّمُ بِالدُّرَرِ», pearls cannot literally be produced by ordinary speech: the speaker praises fine, valuable words.
The classification depends not simply on beauty of expression, but on the changed use of a word, the relation between meanings, and contextual evidence.
2. Definition of majaz
هُوَ اللَّفْظُ الْمُسْتَعْمَلُ فِي غَيْرِ مَا وُضِعَ لَهُ لِعَلَاقَةٍ، مَعَ قَرِينَةٍ مَانِعَةٍ مِنْ إِرَادَةِ الْمَعْنَى السَّابِقِ
Majaz is a word used outside its originally assigned sense because of a relation, accompanied by an indicator that prevents the earlier literal meaning from being intended.
The four elements are the word, its assigned meaning, the relationship ('alaqa) between literal and transferred senses, and the preventing contextual indicator (qarina). An unusual expression is not automatically figurative if these conditions are absent.
3. The source meaning, intended meaning, and relation
«فُلَانٌ يَتَكَلَّمُ بِالدُّرَرِ»
So-and-so speaks in pearls—that is, with exceptionally fine and valuable words.
Literal sense: precious pearls.
Intended sense: excellent, elegant utterances.
Relation: resemblance in beauty and value.
Indicator: the verb «يَتَكَلَّمُ»; ordinary speaking does not produce physical pearls.
Similarity permits the transfer, while the context makes the figurative interpretation appropriate.
4. The preventing contextual indicator
A qarina may be a word in the utterance or a circumstantial or rational clue supplied by the situation. Its purpose is to determine the intended meaning, not merely to decorate the expression.
In «يَتَكَلَّمُ بِالدُّرَرِ», the act of speaking points away from physical pearls toward eloquent statements, functioning as a verbal contextual clue. Elsewhere the situation itself can supply the clue.
A resemblance or other relation alone is insufficient: the interpretation must also account for why the literal meaning is not intended.
5. Not every figurative relation is resemblance
The relation between literal and transferred meanings is sometimes similarity and sometimes another connection. Fine speech described as pearls belongs to the first kind.
A whole word may also refer to a part, for example when “fingers” refers to fingertips inserted in the ears. This relation is whole-to-part, not resemblance in beauty or form.
Thus, isti'ara (metaphor) rests on similarity; majaz mursal rests on a different relation. The latter receives its own detailed treatment in the following level.
6. An illustrative whole-for-part transfer
«يَجْعَلُونَ أَصَابِعَهُمْ فِي آذَانِهِمْ»
They put their fingers into their ears.
The word «أَصَابِع» normally denotes whole fingers, whereas in the described action the fingertips are inserted. The relation is wholeness (kulliyya): naming the whole while intending its part.
This is a helpful example of majaz in general, but it is not isti'ara. Its relation is whole-to-part rather than similarity, so it falls under majaz mursal, which is studied next.
7. Linguistic versus predicative figurative use
Linguistic majaz occurs when a word is used with a sense different from its assigned meaning. It is the immediate topic of this chapter’s opening discussion.
In rational or predicative majaz (majaz 'aqli), the shift principally concerns attribution: an act can be ascribed to a cause or associated entity rather than the actual agent, even though the individual words retain their senses.
Here we study transfers of word meaning, beginning with the form based on resemblance: isti'ara.
8. Definition of istiara
«الاستعارة هي مجاز علاقته المشابهة»
Isti'ara is a type of majaz whose relation is resemblance.
A word associated with one thing is borrowed for another because the two share a feature. In an ordinary simile, the two terms are typically shown in a relation of comparison; in metaphor, one side is expressed through the name of the other.
Not every figurative expression is a metaphor. Its distinguishing relation is similarity, and the contextual indicator excludes literal interpretation.
9. How simile becomes metaphor
A simile may explicitly present the subject, comparison model, particle, and ground. In isti'ara, one term is suppressed and language from the other is applied to the intended subject.
For instance, «زَيْدٌ كَالْأَسَدِ فِي الشَّجَاعَةِ» compares Zayd to a lion in courage. In the illustrative «رَأَيْتُ أَسَدًا يَخْطُبُ», the lion word refers to a courageous human speaker; delivering a speech prevents the literal animal interpretation.
The analysis should identify the intended subject, the source of the borrowed word, the shared quality, and the indicator.
10. Technical components of metaphor
Musta'ar lahu: the intended subject for which the borrowed word is used (the simile’s subject).
Musta'ar minhu: the source meaning from which the word is borrowed (the comparison model).
Musta'ar: the borrowed expression itself.
When “darkness” is applied to misguidance, misguidance is the intended referent, literal darkness is the source, and the word “darkness” is borrowed. Their connection is the difficulty of finding a way.
The borrowed word should not be confused with its intended referent.
11. Darkness and light as metaphor
«كِتَابٌ أَنْزَلْنَاهُ إِلَيْكَ لِتُخْرِجَ النَّاسَ مِنَ الظُّلُمَاتِ إِلَى النُّورِ»
A Book We have sent down to you so that you may bring people out of darkness into light.
«الظُّلُمَات» conveys misguidance and «النُّور» guidance. Misguidance obscures the right path as darkness obscures the physical way, while guidance clarifies truth as light makes things visible.
Both are explicit metaphors (tasrihiyya): the source terms “darkness” and “light” are stated, while their intended referents are supplied by context.
12. Recognizing explicit metaphor
In explicit metaphor (isti'ara tasrihiyya), the term belonging to the comparison model is openly mentioned but signifies the intended subject.
“Darkness” in the cited verse denotes misguidance, not simply physical lack of light; “light” stands for guidance. The relation follows from the corresponding effects of obscurity and illumination.
Diagnostic question: Is the borrowed word for the comparison model explicitly present and applied to the intended subject? If yes, the metaphor is tasrihiyya.
13. The pearls-and-flowers poetic example
«فَأَمْطَرَتْ لُؤْلُؤًا مِنْ نَرْجِسٍ، وَسَقَتْ وَرْدًا، وَعَضَّتْ عَلَى الْعُنَّابِ بِالْبَرَدِ»
She rained pearls from narcissi, watered a rose, and bit upon a jujube with hailstones.
Here pearls refer to tears, narcissi to eyes, rose to the cheek, jujube to lips, and hailstones to teeth. The names of familiar objects are transferred to human features because of resemblance in appearance.
A sound reading analyzes each borrowed term separately rather than treating the entire poem as one undifferentiated metaphor.
14. Selecting the correct point of resemblance
The poetic example does not rely on one identical property throughout. Pearls suggest the sheen and clarity of tears; narcissi suggest the eyes’ appearance; hailstones suggest the brightness of teeth.
Identifying the ground of resemblance is important. If hailstones stand for teeth, simply saying “coldness” misses the most relevant visual relationship.
One line can contain several distinct metaphors, with a separate intended referent and relevant resemblance for each.
15. The implicit metaphor
In implicit metaphor (isti'ara makniyya), the subject remains, the comparison model is omitted, and some characteristic or associated feature of the missing model points to it.
The borrowed comparison is therefore not always a single overt noun standing for another noun. It can be suggested by attributing a characteristic of a different kind to the expressed subject.
The associated feature that makes the imagined comparison perceptible is discussed as the imaginal (takhyiliyya) element.
16. Implicit metaphor in the wing of humility
«وَاخْفِضْ لَهُمَا جَنَاحَ الذُّلِّ مِنَ الرَّحْمَةِ»
Lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy.
Humility is expressed, while a bird is implicitly imagined as the comparison model. The bird itself is omitted, but the associated feature “wing” makes that comparison perceptible. Hence the expression illustrates implicit metaphor.
The instruction is not about a literal wing; it communicates compassionate and humble behavior toward one’s parents through an evocative image.
17. The implied bird and its characteristic
In «جَنَاحَ الذُّلِّ», the expressed subject is humility, the comparison model is an unspoken bird, and the wing is a distinctive feature of that model.
The mere appearance of the word “wing” does not make the principal metaphor explicit. The modeled creature itself is concealed; therefore the governing metaphor is implicit, and the wing is the feature through which that comparison is imagined.
A common error is to overlook the suppressed model and classify the sentence from a single conspicuous word alone.
18. Comparing tasrihiyya and makniyya
FeatureExplicit metaphorImplicit metaphor
Expressed termComparison model's wordSubject of comparison
Suppressed termIntended subjectComparison model
Typical clueThe model's name applied directlyCharacteristic of the suppressed model
ExampleDarkness for misguidanceThe wing of humility
Both depend on resemblance and contextual evidence. The decisive distinction is which side of the underlying comparison is stated and which is suppressed.
19. Primary metaphor: an underived term
An original or primary metaphor (asliyya) occurs when the borrowed expression is an underived noun. The new meaning is carried by that noun directly.
Using “darkness” for misguidance and “light” for guidance illustrates this type: the nominal terms themselves carry the metaphorical reference.
This differs from the tasrihiyya/makniyya distinction. The latter asks which comparison term is expressed; asliyya/tab'iyya asks what kind of expression bears the transfer.
20. Derivative metaphor: verbs, derivatives, and particles
A derivative metaphor (tab'iyya) is expressed through a verb, derived noun, or particle. It is conventionally explained by analyzing a comparison at the level of the underlying source meaning, then tracing that transfer into the derived form.
The literal verb «رَكِبَ» means to ride. In «رَكِبَ كَتِفَيْ غَيْرِهِ», it conveys clinging to or pressing another person with unusual persistence, borrowing the idea of mounting.
A sentence does not become tab'iyya merely by containing a verb; the verb’s meaning must actually be transferred.
21. Why the verbal noun matters
In «رَكِبَ كَتِفَيْ غَيْرِهِ», the analysis first relates riding (rukub) to persistent attachment (luzum) through the common idea of close physical adherence. The meaning is then transferred into the verb «رَكِبَ».
This explains how morphological derivation and rhetorical transfer are connected. Merely naming the form “derivative metaphor” without showing the comparison at the source-meaning level is incomplete.
Key point: a resemblance associated with the underlying meaning is realized in the derived verbal form.
22. Derivative metaphor in a preposition
«أُولَئِكَ عَلَى هُدًى مِنْ رَبِّهِمْ»
Those are established upon guidance from their Lord.
The ordinary spatial relation of «عَلَى» is being upon or above. Steadfast possession of guidance is conceptualized as securely being on top of a mount or support.
The people are not physically seated on guidance. The relation of elevation or support is transferred to confident adherence to guidance, illustrating derivative metaphor in a particle.
23. Spatial and nonspatial uses of ala
The point is not that «عَلَى» must always be metaphorical. In this example it does not express literal physical elevation; a spatial relation is transferred into a nonspatial one.
Analysis proceeds in two stages: resemblance between steadfast guidance and secure elevation, then use of the preposition’s relational meaning for that state.
Particles express relationships with other words. Their rhetorical effect must therefore be examined in the complete construction, not through a dictionary gloss alone.
24. Primary versus derivative metaphor
TypeExpression bearing transferExample
PrimaryUnderived nounDarkness for misguidance
DerivativeVerbRiding for clinging insistently
DerivativePrepositionUpon guidance for secure adherence
Both morphological form and rhetorical use must be analyzed. One metaphor can be both explicit and primary: these are classifications along different dimensions.
25. Reinforced metaphor: tarshih
A metaphor is reinforced (murashshaha) when the surrounding expression adds an associated feature appropriate to the comparison model or source domain. The added detail strengthens the borrowed picture.
For example, describing the choice of misguidance over guidance as a purchase and then mentioning profit and commerce reinforces the commercial image.
Analysis should distinguish the expression that establishes the metaphor from the later detail that reinforces the model from which the metaphor was borrowed.
26. Commerce imagery that reinforces metaphor
«أُولَئِكَ الَّذِينَ اشْتَرَوُا الضَّلَالَةَ بِالْهُدَى فَمَا رَبِحَتْ تِجَارَتُهُمْ»
These are the ones who purchased misguidance in exchange for guidance, so their trade yielded no profit.
Choosing misguidance over guidance is depicted through purchasing. The later words profit and trade belong to that same commercial field and strengthen the initial borrowed picture.
The reinforcement lies not simply in the buying expression itself but in adding associated details appropriate to the source image of commerce.
27. Stripped metaphor: tajrid
A metaphor is termed stripped (mujarrada) when it is accompanied by a feature suitable to the intended subject (musta'ar lahu) rather than the comparison model.
The essential contrast is that tarshih adds features of the source model, while tajrid adds features fitting the intended target.
The added expression need not itself establish another metaphor; its function is to develop the figurative statement by reference to the target.
28. The garment of hunger and fear
«فَأَذَاقَهَا اللَّهُ لِبَاسَ الْجُوعِ وَالْخَوْفِ»
So God made it taste the garment of hunger and fear.
The affliction of hunger and fear is depicted as clothing that envelops a person. The garment provides the source image; hunger and fear are the intended afflictions.
The verb “made it taste” fits experienced hunger and fear rather than a garment as such. Thus the accompanying detail suits the target domain and illustrates mujarrada.
29. Unqualified metaphor: itlaq
An unqualified metaphor (mutlaqa) has its metaphorical expression and the necessary indicator, but no additional characteristic particularly suited to either the intended subject or the comparison model that would make it reinforced or stripped.
It is vital to distinguish the essential contextual indicator from the additional associated details used for tarshih or tajrid.
“Unqualified” does not mean “without any qarina.” A metaphor still needs the clue that rules out literal intention.
30. Breaking a covenant as an unqualified metaphor
«الَّذِينَ يَنْقُضُونَ عَهْدَ اللَّهِ»
Those who break God’s covenant.
«نقض» has a familiar sense of untying or undoing something bound or constructed. A covenant is conceptualized as a binding or knot, and “undoing” is transferred to violating it.
No further feature of the binding or the covenant is developed to reinforce one side. This makes it an unqualified metaphor; mention of the covenant supplies the intended object and contextual evidence.
31. Three types classified by accompanying detail
TypeAssociated detailExample
ReinforcedSuits the source modelPurchase followed by trade and profit
StrippedSuits the target referentGarment of hunger followed by tasting
UnqualifiedNo such extra detailBreaking God's covenant
The deciding feature is the relation of additional surrounding details to either side of the metaphor, not the borrowed expression's morphological category.
32. A metaphor can carry multiple classifications
One metaphor can be classified through three distinct questions. First: is the source model openly named, or indicated through one of its features? Second: is the transferred form an underived noun, verb, derived word, or particle? Third: which side is supported by added details?
“Darkness” for misguidance can be both explicit and primary. The transferred relational meaning of «عَلَى» makes its derivative character central.
These classifications are not mutually exclusive across different dimensions. A correct answer must name the dimension being tested.
33. Common analytical mistakes
Error 1: treating every vivid or emphatic statement as majaz without checking transfer and a preventing indicator.
Error 2: calling «يَجْعَلُونَ أَصَابِعَهُمْ» a metaphor, though its relation is whole-to-part rather than similarity.
Error 3: calling «جَنَاحَ الذُّلِّ» explicit while ignoring the implied bird.
Error 4: deciding between reinforced and stripped metaphor without asking which side the added expression suits.
A proper analysis proceeds systematically: source sense, intended sense, relation, indicator, and classification dimension.
34. Worked analysis: darkness and light
«مِنَ الظُّلُمَاتِ إِلَى النُّورِ»
From darkness into light.
Target referents: misguidance and guidance.
Source models: physical darkness and light.
Relation: loss or discovery of the right way.
Indicator: the context of leading people toward religious guidance.
Types: explicit, because the source-model nouns are stated; primary, because they are underived nouns.
A full analysis can be concise when every required part is named and justified.
35. Synthesis and preparation for majaz mursal
In majaz, a word moves beyond its assigned sense; an 'alaqa motivates the transfer and a qarina prevents taking the original sense. Isti'ara is the type of transfer whose relation is resemblance.
Explicit/implicit: which comparison term is expressed or suppressed?
Primary/derivative: is the transferred expression an underived noun, or a verb, derivative, or particle?
Reinforced/stripped/unqualified: are any further details suited to the source, to the intended target, or to neither?
These foundations prepare the next level on majaz mursal, in which the relations are not based on resemblance.