Universal and Particular — Definitions and Practical Classification

Textbook examples, shared applicability, definite reference, edge cases and guided practice Read the bilingual lesson for Universal and Particular — Definitions and Practical Classification and test your understanding with a focused quiz.

Lesson

1. A new question after simple and composite expressions

The preceding lesson classified expressions as simple or composite according to whether their parts are intended to signify parts of their meaning. A different question now arises: how many individuals can the concept in our mind apply to?
'Horse' can mean any horse. 'This horse,' accompanied by pointing, singles out one definite animal.
Logic uses the terms universal (kullī) and particular (juzʾī) for this distinction. It concerns the scope of a concept, not the number of words in an expression.

2. The book’s division and the meaning of concept

The source begins: 'The concept (that is, what comes into the mind) has two kinds: universal and particular.'
A mafhūm is the meaning grasped when a word is heard or a thing is considered. 'Human' evokes a general meaning; 'Zayd', when used as the proper name of a definite person, identifies that person.
Classification depends on whether the intended concept is capable of applying to multiple individuals, not merely on pronunciation or spelling.

3. The source definition of a universal

The book defines a universal as a concept in which participation is possible: it can apply truly to many things.
This means that the same meaning can correctly be predicated of distinct individuals. Calling one person 'human' does not prevent another person being called 'human' in the same sense.
Hence 'human' is universal. It is not that the individuals share a personal name, but that the general meaning applies to each.

4. The textbook’s example: human being

The book illustrates universality with 'human being', applying it to Zayd, Amr and Bakr. They are distinct people, yet 'is a human being' may be truly said of each.
Example 1: Zayd is human.
Example 2: Amr is human.
Example 3: Bakr is human.
The individuals change while the meaning human remains the same. That shared applicability makes the concept universal.

5. Possibility of multiple application, not an actual count

The phrase 'can apply' is decisive. A universal need not have many currently visible instances. What matters is whether the meaning itself admits application to more than one individual.
Imagine a room with only one student. 'Student' remains universal because someone else could also fit that meaning.
There is one individual in the room, but the concept is not restricted to that person.

6. One universal concept across distinct individuals

Consider 'horse'. A white horse, a black horse and a brown horse differ in color, but each is a horse.
Example 1: a white horse is a horse.
Example 2: a black horse is a horse.
Example 3: a brown horse is a horse.
A universal does not require all its instances to be identical in every feature. They share the meaning under which they are classified.

7. The source definition of a particular

The book defines a particular as a concept which does not allow shared application: it applies to one definite thing.
'Muʿayyan' means a specified individual. When 'Zayd' is used as a proper name to denote one identified man, another person is not included in that very referent.
'Zayd' is particular in that use. The reason is definiteness of reference, not the length of the word.

8. The textbook’s example: Zayd

The source gives the proper name Zayd as an example of a particular, assuming a specific Zayd is intended.
'Human' can apply to Zayd, Amr and Bakr.
'Zayd', referring to that one specified person, cannot be replaced by Amr or Bakr as the same individual.
Many people might happen to bear the name Zayd; that does not make a particular use of the name refer to all of them.

9. Demonstration singles out this horse

The general concept 'horse' can apply to many horses and is universal. Pointing to an animal and saying 'this horse' singles out one definite animal.
'Horse': a general meaning admitting multiple instances.
'This horse': one horse specified in the present context.
The demonstrative narrows the reference to an individual, and that specification depends on the context of pointing.

10. Keep an individual’s name apart from its kind

Imagine a particular horse named Badal. We may describe the very same animal in two ways:
'Horse' gives its kind and can apply to other horses: universal.
'Badal', when used as this very animal's individual name: particular.
The same thing can be described through universal concepts and referred to through particular terms. The distinction lies in meaning and intended reference.

11. Textbook exercises: horse and this horse

Apply the rule to expressions of the sort used in the book’s classification exercise.
'Horse' is universal because many animals can fall under it.
'This horse' is particular when one horse is definitely indicated.
'My pen' does not automatically specify one pen; its owner may have several. The context may, however, fix one pen as the intended referent.
Context matters especially for relational and demonstrative expressions.

12. Why “Zayd’s servant” needs thought

The previous lesson treated 'Zayd's servant' as composite because its parts contribute to its meaning. Here we ask a different question: does it identify just one servant?
If Zayd has several servants and no one is singled out, the description may apply to several and thus has universal scope.
If the context clearly fixes one known servant, the reference becomes particular. Composite structure alone does not decide universality or particularity.

13. Why one actual instance may still be universal

Suppose a village currently has only one physician. The concept 'physician' still allows other individuals to qualify, so it is universal.
Now point to that physician and say 'this physician'. With a definite referent, the expression is particular.
The external facts have not changed. What changes is whether we mean a general description or a specified person.

14. One person versus that person

In 'a person is at the door', the phrase 'a person' need not identify which person; it is an indefinite description.
By contrast, 'the person we met yesterday' may single out a known person in context.
Grammatical singularity is not the same as logical particularity. The word 'one' does not automatically establish a uniquely identified individual.

15. The sun and this sun: meaning matters

The textbook exercise raises expressions such as 'sun' and 'this sun'. Do not classify them merely because one sun is familiar in everyday life. First identify what the speaker means.
If 'a sun' denotes a general kind of stellar body capable of multiple instances, the concept is universal.
If 'this sun' picks out one particular known sun, it is particular. In ordinary speech 'the Sun' may already refer to the one familiar astronomical object; context then governs the classification.

16. Sky and this sky

The exercise also gives 'sky' and 'this sky'. Natural-language expressions may serve as general concepts in one setting and refer to a known thing in another.
Classifying 'sky' requires identifying the intended meaning: a shareable concept or a definite thing in the conversation?
'This sky' is particular when the phrase demonstratively fixes one referent.
Logical classification therefore requires analysis of meaning, not mechanical labeling.

17. Universal does not mean all instances at once

A common mistake is to think that 'horse' must mean the entire collection of horses. The universal concept horse can be truly applied to each horse without itself asserting anything about all horses together.
'Horse' expresses a general kind. 'All horses' explicitly ranges over its members.
Universality is the ability of a meaning to apply to many individuals, not the presence of a word such as 'all' in a sentence.

18. Particular does not mean a physical part

In ordinary speech 'particular' might sound like a small part of an object. In logic it is a technical term for a determinate individual or a concept referring to it.
'This entire house' can be particular if it identifies one definite house; the house is still a whole building.
'Door' is universal because it can apply to many doors, even though a door may be a physical component of a house. Logical particularity is not physical part-whole structure.

19. Two independent classifications

Simple/composite concerns the intended signification of an expression's parts. Universal/particular concerns whether its meaning is shareable by multiple individuals.
'Horse' is a simple expression and universal.
'Zayd', when referring to one known person, is simple and particular.
'This horse' has more than one word yet can refer to a particular animal. The classifications answer independent questions.

20. Universal/particular is not conception/judgment

A third distinction matters. 'Human' is a universal concept; merely saying the word makes no complete assertion and thus involves conception.
'This human exists' asserts something about a specified individual and is a proposition.
Universality concerns the range of a concept. Conception versus judgment concerns whether there is an assertion. They are different logical questions.

21. A three-step method for the book’s exercises

Use a three-step procedure.
Step 1: identify the intended meaning, rather than relying on the number of words. Is it a general kind or a definite individual?
Step 2: ask whether multiple individuals could share that very meaning. If yes, it is universal.
Step 3: if only one identified referent fits the intended expression, classify it as particular.
For instance 'water' is universal while 'this cup', when a definite cup is indicated, is particular.

22. Worked practice: six classifications

Classify each expression and notice the reason.
1. 'Bird': universal; it fits many birds.
2. 'This bird': particular when one bird is pointed out.
3. 'Teacher': universal; many people may qualify.
4. 'Zayd': particular when one specific Zayd is intended.
5. 'Pen': universal; many pens fit the concept.
6. 'This pen': particular when one pen is identified.
Every decision rests on shared applicability versus specified reference.

23. Why ambiguous cases require care

Some expressions permit more than one reasonable interpretation, so an immediate label can mislead.
'Kubra' is particular when used as the proper name of one known woman. Mere spelling does not tell us every detail of the intended use.
'Zayd's servant' may describe several people or be fixed to one person by context.
Identifying the intended sense is the first step toward sound logical classification.

24. Recap and preparation for the next lesson

A universal is a meaning that can apply to several individuals in the same sense: human, horse, and pen are clear examples.
A particular singles out one determinate individual, such as a specific Zayd or this horse when one horse is pointed out.
Formulate three examples of each and explain whether shared applicability is possible or one definite referent is intended.
The next lesson introduces reality/essence and further distinctions of universals. These definitions are its foundation.

Practice questions

Question 1

What is decisive in the book’s definition of a universal?

It has many letters
Its meaning can apply to multiple individuals
It is always grammatically plural
It has physical parts

Question 2

What does “specified” mean in the definition of a particular?

A large physical object
A one-word expression
One identifiable individual
Something necessarily nonexistent

Question 3

Why is “human being” universal?

It is Zayd’s individual name
It has no meaning
It applies to Zayd, Amr and Bakr
It always has two words

Question 4

When it identifies one known person, what is “Zayd”?

Universal
Particular
Necessarily composite
The name of all humans

Question 5

What is “horse” when it means the general kind?

Particular
Contradictory
Universal
Meaningless

Question 6

What is “this horse” when one horse is pointed out?

Particular
Universal
Syllogism
Proof

Question 7

With one student in the room, what is the concept “student”?

Necessarily particular
Universal
Meaningless
A particle

Question 8

What condition is needed for a concept to be universal?

At least three instances currently exist
Its meaning admits multiple application
The word must be plural
It must be visible

Question 9

How is “this pen” classified when it singles out one pen?

Universal
Particular
Definition only
Induction

Question 10

What is “pen” in its ordinary generic sense?

Universal
Particular
Necessarily a proposition
Syllogism

Question 11

What does logical “universal” essentially mean?

The collection of all individuals
A shared, applicable meaning
A whole physical body
A sentence containing “all”

Question 12

What does logical “particular” refer to?

A small physical fragment
The final letter
One determinate referent
A segment of a word’s meaning

Question 13

What is “this entire house” when one house is meant?

Universal because it is entire
Particular because a definite house is meant
Universal because a house is large
Neither a concept nor an expression

Question 14

What distinguishes “horse” from “this horse”?

The first lacks meaning
General kind versus specified individual
The second is necessarily false
The first is always composite

Question 15

If “Zayd’s servant” can apply to several servants, what is its conceptual scope?

Universal
Always particular
A negation
Meaningless

Question 16

What is the best analysis of “my pen”?

Always one specified pen
Always several pens
Context is needed to know whether one pen is fixed
It is always a verb

Question 17

If “Kubra” is the proper name of one known woman, what is it?

Particular
Necessarily universal
A conditional proposition
A syllogism

Question 18

If one horse is named Badal, how do “horse” and that proper name differ?

Both are necessarily universal
Horse is universal, the proper name particular
Both meaningless
Horse is necessarily particular

Question 19

Which distinction concerns meaningful constituents of an expression?

Universal/particular
Simple/composite
Self-evident/theoretical
True/false

Question 20

Which distinction asks whether a meaning applies to several individuals?

Universal/particular
Simple/composite
Verb/particle
True/false

Question 21

When “human” is given as a bare term, what is it?

A conception with universal meaning
A false judgment
Only a particular
A syllogism

Question 22

How does “this human exists” differ as a complete expression?

It makes an assertion
It is meaningless
It must be simple
It is only a noun

Question 23

Which classification of “bird” is correct?

Particular because each bird differs
Universal because many birds fit it
Only one particular bird
No meaning

Question 24

When “this bird” indicates one known bird, what is it?

Particular
Universal
Necessary concomitant
Nonverbal signification

Question 25

Why is “physician” universal?

Only one lives in the village
Other people may also be physicians
The word is long
It always names one person

Question 26

Why can classifying “sun” require context?

It has no letters
It may denote a general kind or one definite sun
It can never be simple
It is always meaningless

Question 27

Which question best identifies a universal?

How many letters?
Can the same meaning apply to multiple individuals?
How heavy is it?
Is the word Arabic?

Question 28

Which question best identifies a particular?

Does it have three letters?
Is one definite individual intended?
Is it large?
Is the word plural?

Question 29

Why should “all horses” not simply be equated with “horse”?

The former explicitly ranges over all instances
Horse is meaningless
All horses must be particular
Both refer to one horse

Question 30

Why does “a person” not automatically become a logical particular?

It may not fix which person is intended
One always means plural
Human cannot be universal
It has no linguistic meaning

Question 31

Why are a white and a black horse both horses?

Their colors must be identical
The shared concept applies despite differences
Every animal is one and the same individual
Horse is a personal name

Question 32

What distinction prepares for the next topic on essence?

Universal versus particular
Only counting words
Only letter order
Only spelling

Question 33

Why can “this pen” be particular even though it has multiple words?

Every composite is particular
Pointing fixes a particular pen
All pens are identical
This has no meaning

Question 34

What is the basic contrast between Zayd and human?

Both necessarily name a single person
Zayd refers to a particular, human is shareable by many
Human is not a word
Zayd means a collection

Question 35

A concept can be universal even when just one instance currently exists.

Question 36

Every expression containing “this” must be particular without regard to context.

Question 37

Zayd used for one definite person is particular.

Question 38

“Zayd’s servant” must be particular because it is composite.

Question 39

The concept pen requires two pens on a table to be universal.

Question 40

All individuals under a universal must be alike in every property.

Question 41

A logical particular need not be a physically small part of something.

Question 42

Universal/particular and conception/judgment ask different questions.

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